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command reassigns the positional parameters, in place shifting these to the left one notch.
the script name will not change. If you use a lot of positional parameters to your script,
bin/bash : Using shift to step through all of the positional parameters. Name this script such as, and invoke it with a few parameters. For example: sh a b c def 83 barndoor until -z 1 Until all parameters used do echo - n 1 shift done echo Extra linefeed. But, what the results are to the used-up parameters? echo 2 Nothing echoes! When 2 shifts into 1 and there is no 3 to shift into 2 then 2 remains empty. So, it's not necessarily a parameter copy, but a move. exit See also the script for just a shiftless alternative way of stepping with the positional params.
command might take a numerical parameter indicating what number of positions to shift.
bin/bash shift 3 Shift 3 positions. n3; shift n Has the same effect. echo 1 exit 0 sh 1 2 3 4 5 4 However, as Eleni Fragkiadaki, indicates, attempting a shift beyond the number of positional parameters returns an exit status of merely one, plus the positional parameters themselves do not change. This means possibly getting stuck within an endless For example: until -z 1 do echo - n 1 shift 20 If under 20 pos params, done then loop never ends! When in doubt, put in a sanity shift 20 break
Quoting means this, bracketing a string in quotes. This has the consequence of protecting special characters
inside string from reinterpretation or expansion through the shell or shell script. A character is special if this has an interpretation besides its literal meaning. For example, the asterisk
In everyday speech or writing, whenever we quote a phrase, we set it apart and offer it special meaning. In a Bash script, after we
a string, we set it apart and protect its
Certain programs and utilities reinterpret or expand special characters in a very quoted string. An important utilization of quoting is protecting a command-line parameter through the shell, yet still letting the calling program expand it.
When referencing an adjustable, it really is generally preferable to enclose its name in double quotes. This prevents reinterpretation of most special characters in the quoted string - - except, backquote, and escape. 30
that is, replacing the variable which consists of value see Example 4-1
Use double quotes to avoid word splitting. 31
An argument enclosed in double quotes comes up as an individual word, even if this contains whitespace
Listone two three for the in List Splits the variable in parts at whitespace. do echo a done one two three echo - - for any in List Preserves whitespace in the single variable. do echo a done one two three
variable1a variable containing five words COMMAND This is variable1 Executes COMMAND with 7 arguments: This is usually a variable containing five words COMMAND This is variable1 Executes COMMAND with 1 argument: This is really a variable containing five words variable2 Empty. COMMAND variable2 variable2 variable2 Executes COMMAND without the need of arguments. COMMAND variable2 variable2 variable2 Executes COMMAND with 3 empty arguments. COMMAND variable2 variable2 variable2 Executes COMMAND with 1 argument 2 spaces. Thanks, StР№phane Chazelas.
Example 5-1. Echoing Weird Variables
Single quotes operate similarly to double quotes, but don't permit referencing variables, since special purpose of is switched off. Within single quotes, every special character except gets interpreted literally. Consider single quotes full quoting to become a stricter technique of quoting than double quotes partial quoting.
Since the escape character turns into a literal interpretation within single quotes, looking to enclose just one quote within single quotes is not going to yield the expected result.
echo Why cant I write s between single quotes echo The roundabout method. echo Why cant I write s between single quotes -- - --- - ------ Three single-quoted strings, with escaped and quoted single quotes between. This example for StР№phane Chazelas.
is really a method of quoting single characters. The escape preceding a character tells the shell to interpret that character literally.
With certain commands and utilities, for example echo
escaping a character could have the opposite effect - it may toggle with a special meaning for the character.
string-expansion construct is often a mechanism that utilizes escaped octal or hex values to assign ASCII characters to variables, ,
Example 5-2. Escaped Characters
bin/bash : escaped characters First, lets show some elementary escaped-character usage. Escaping a newline. ----- echo echo This will print as two lines. This will print as two lines. echo This will print as you line. This will print united line. echo; echo echo echo vvvv Prints vvvv literally. Use the - e option with echo to print escaped characters. echo echo VERTICAL TABS echo - e vvvv Prints 4 vertical tabs. echo echo QUOTATION MARK echo - e 042 Prints quote, octal ASCII character 42. echo The X construct helps to make the - e option unnecessary. echo; echo NEWLINE and perhaps BEEP echo n Newline. echo a Alert beep. May only flash, not beep, based on terminal. We have seen nnn string expansion, and Version 2 of Bash introduced the nnn string expansion construct. echo Introducing the string-expansion echo featuring more quotation marks. echo t 042 t Quote framed by tabs. Note that nnn is surely an octal value. It also works together hexadecimal values, inside an xhhh construct. echo t x22 t Quote framed by tabs. Thank you, Greg Keraunen, for pointing this out. Earlier Bash versions allowed x022. echo Assigning ASCII characters into a variable. ---------- quote042 assigned to your variable. echo quote Quoted string quote this also lies away from quotes. echo Concatenating ASCII chars within a variable. tripleunderline137137137 137 is octal ASCII code for. echo tripleunderline UNDERLINE tripleunderline echo ABC101102103010 101, 102, 103 are octal A, B, C. echo ABC echo escape033 033 is octal for escape. echo escape echoes as escape no visible output. echo exit 0
Example 5-3. Detecting key-presses
bin/bash Author: Sigurd Solaas, 20 Apr 2011 Used in ABS Guide with permission. Requires version 4.2 of Bash. keyno value yet while true; do clear echo Bash Extra Keys Demo. Keys to try: echo echo Insert, Delete, Home, End, PageUp and PageDown echo The four arrow keys echo Tab, enter, escape, and space key echo The letter and number keys, etc. echo echo d show date/time echo q quit echo echo Convert the separate home-key to home-keynum7: if key x1bx4fx48 ; then keyx1bx5bx31x7e Quoted string-expansion construct. fi Convert the separate end-key to end-keynum1. if key x1bx4fx46 ; then keyx1bx5bx34x7e fi case get into x1bx5bx32x7e Insert echo Insert Key ;; x1bx5bx33x7e Delete echo Delete Key ;; x1bx5bx31x7e Homekeynum7 echo Home Key ;; x1bx5bx34x7e Endkeynum1 echo End Key ;; x1bx5bx35x7e PageUp echo PageUp ;; x1bx5bx36x7e PageDown echo PageDown ;; x1bx5bx41 Uparrow echo Up arrow ;; x1bx5bx42 Downarrow echo Down arrow ;; x1bx5bx43 Rightarrow echo Right arrow ;; x1bx5bx44 Leftarrow echo Left arrow ;; x09 Tab echo Tab Key ;; x0a Enter echo Enter Key ;; x1b Escape echo Escape Key ;; x20 Space echo Space Key ;; d date ;; q echo Time to echo exit 0 ;; echo You pressed: key ;; esac echo echo unset K1 K2 K3 read - s - N1 - p Press an essential: K1REPLY read - s - N2 - t 0.001 K2REPLY read - s - N1 - t 0.001 K3REPLY keyK1K2K3 done exit?
echo variable01 variable01 echo The book cost 7.98. The book cost 7.98.
echo Results in echo Invokes secondary prompt in the command-line. In a script, gives an oversight message. echo Results in
The behavior of is determined by whether it's escaped, strong-quoted
or appearing within command substitution
Elements of your string assigned into a variable can be escaped, though the escape character alone is probably not assigned to some variable.
variable echo variable Will not work - gives a mistake message: :: command not found A naked escape cannot safely be assigned to some variable. What actually happens this is that the escapes the newline as well as the effect is variableecho variable invalid variable assignment variable 23skidoo echo variable 23skidoo This works, since second line can be a valid variable assignment. variable escape then space echo variable space variable echo variable variable echo variable Will not work - gives a mistake message: : : command not found First escape escapes second one, nevertheless the third the first is left naked, with same result as first instance, above. variable echo variable Second and fourth escapes escaped. This is
Escaping space can prevent word splitting in a very commands argument list.
filelist/bin/cat/bin/gzip/bin/more/usr/bin/less/usr/bin/emacs-20.7 List of files as arguments into a command. Add two files towards the list, and list all. ls - l/usr/X11R6/bin/xsetroot/sbin/dump filelist echo - ------------------ What happens when we escape a number of spaces? ls - l/usr/X11R6/bin/xsetroot/sbin/dump filelist Error: the 1st three files concatenated into one particular argument to ls - l for the reason that two escaped spaces prevent argument word splitting.
The escape also comes with a means of writing a multi-line command. Normally, each separate line takes its different command, but a getaway at the end of an line escapes the newline character, as well as the command sequence continues on to your next line.
cd/source/directory tar cf -. cd/dest/directory tar xpvf - Repeating Alan Coxs directory tree copy command, but broken into two lines for increased legibility. As an alternative: tar cf - - C/source/directory. tar xpvf - - C/dest/directory See note below. Thanks, StР№phane Chazelas.
If a script line ends using a, a pipe character, then this, some slack, will not be strictly necessary. It is, however, good programming practice to always escape the end of your line of code that continues for the following line.
echo foo bar foo bar echo echo foo bar No difference yet. foo bar echo echo foo bar Newline escaped. foobar echo echo foo bar Same here, as still interpreted as escape within weak quotes. foobar echo echo foo bar Escape character taken literally due to strong quoting. foo bar Examples suggested by StР№phane Chazelas.
Chapter 6. Exit and Exit Status
there are dark corners from the Bourne shell, the ones use all of these.
command terminates a script, just as within a
program. It can also return a worth, that is available for the scripts parent process.
A successful command returns a 0, while an unsuccessful one returns a non-zero value that usually may be interpreted as an
Well-behaved UNIX commands, programs, and utilities return a 0 exit code upon successful completion, though there are several exceptions.
within a script as well as the script itself return an exit status. The last command executed inside function or script determines the exit status. Within a script, an
must be an integer inside the 0 - 255 range.
on the permissions for the file or directory listing. This restricts altering or deleting specific files because directory to your owner of those files.
If a user won't own a directory which has the sticky bit set, but has write permission for the reason that directory, she will only delete those files that they owns inside it. This keeps users from inadvertently overwriting or deleting each others files within a publicly accessible directory, like
can, needless to say, delete or rename files there.
not - - reverses the a feeling of the tests above returns true if condition absent.
Example 7-4. Testing for broken links
also illustrate uses on the file test operators.
7.3. Other Comparison Operators
comparison operator compares two variables or quantities. Note that integer and string comparison employ a different list of operators.
test than within single brackets.
a z True in case a starts with an z pattern matching. a z True in case a is corresponding to z literal matching. a z File globbing and word splitting happen. a z True if the is comparable to z literal matching. Thanks, StР№phane Chazelas
is more than, in ASCII alphabetical order
for a credit card applicatoin of this comparison operator.
String Zero-length null string variable. if -z String then echo String is null. else echo String is NOT null. fi String is null.
test requires which the string be quoted inside the test brackets. Using an unquoted string with
or just the unquoted string alone within test brackets see Example 7-6
normally works, however, this is definitely an unsafe practice. Always quote a tested string. 37
Example 7-5. Arithmetic and string comparisons
bin/bash a4 b5 Here a and b might be treated either as integers or strings. There is some blurring between arithmetic and string comparisons, since Bash variables will not be strongly typed. Bash permits integer operations and comparisons on variables whose value consists of-integer characters. Caution advised, however. echo when a - ne b then echo a just isn't equal to b echo arithmetic comparison fi echo in case a! b then echo a isn't equal to b. echo string comparison 4! 5 ASCII 52! ASCII 53 fi In this particular instance, both - ne and ! work. echo exit 0
Example 7-6. Testing whether a string is
bin/bash : Testing null strings and unquoted strings, and not strings and sealing wax, as well as cabbages and Using if If a string will never be initialized, it's no defined value. This state is known as null not equivalent to zero!. if -n string1 string1 will never be declared or initialized. then echo String string1 isn't null. else echo String string1 is null. fi Wrong result. Shows string1 as not null, though it was not initialized. echo Lets repeat the process. if -n string1 This time, string1 is quoted. then echo String string1 will not be null. else echo String string1 is null. fi Quote strings within test brackets! echo if string1 This time, string1 stands naked. then echo String string1 just isn't null. else echo String string1 is null. fi This works fine. The test operator alone detects perhaps the string is null. However it can be good practice to quote it if string1. As Stephane Chazelas suggests, if string1 has one argument, if string1 has two arguments, the empty string1 and echo string1initialized if string1 Again, string1 stands unquoted. then echo String string1 isn't null. else echo String string1 is null. fi Again, gives correct result. Still, marketing and advertising to quote it string1, string1a b if string1 Again, string1 stands unquoted. then echo String string1 will not be null. else echo String string1 is null. fi Not quoting string1 now gives wrong result! exit 0 Thank you, also, Florian Wisser, for that heads-up.
bin/bash zmore View gzipped files with an increase of filter. ENOARGS85 ENOTFOUND86 ENOTGZIP87 if - eq 0 same effect as: if -z 1 1 can exist, but be empty: zmore arg2 arg3 then echo Usage: basename 0 filename 2 Error message to stderr. exit ENOARGS Returns 85 as exit status of script error code. fi filename1 if ! - f filename Quoting filename permits possible spaces. then echo File filename not found! 2 Error message to stderr. exit ENOTFOUND fi if filename.! gz Using bracket in variable substitution. then echo File 1 is just not a gzipped file! exit ENOTGZIP fi zcat 1 more Uses a lot more filter. May substitute less if desired. exit? Script returns exit status of pipe. Actually exit? is unnecessary, as being the script will, no matter the reason, return the exit status on the last command executed.
returns true if both exp1 and exp2 are true.
9. Another Look at Variables
9.3. RANDOM: generate random integer
10. Manipulating Variables
10.1. Manipulating Strings
10.2. Parameter Substitution
11.4. Testing and Branching
12. Command Substitution
13. Arithmetic Expansion
Chapter 9. Another Look at Variables
Used properly, variables will add power and adaptability to scripts. This requires learning their subtleties and nuances.
level. This is really a new addition to Bash, version 3
in the current demonstration of Bash. This isn't the same since the
variable, but it really often provides the same result.
bin/bash4 echo beyond subshell 9602 echo BASHSUBSHELL away from subshell BASHSUBSHELL 0 echo BASHPID outside subshell BASHPID 9602 echo echo inside subshell 9602 echo BASHSUBSHELL on the inside of subshell BASHSUBSHELL 1 echo BASHPID within subshell BASHPID 9603 Note that returns PID of parent process.
containing version info on the installed turmoil Bash. This is similar to
below, but a little more detailed.
BASHVERSION: Undefined variable.
Checking BASHVERSION can be a good approach to determining which shell is running. SHELL
won't necessarily provide the correct answer.
command, similar in function towards the PATH
shows your entire contents from the directory stack.
The default editor invoked with a script, usually
Identification quantity of whatever identity the actual user has assumed, perhaps by ways of su
xyz23 echo FUNCNAME now executing. xyz23 now executing. xyz23 echo FUNCNAME FUNCNAME FUNCNAME Null value outside a function.
This is usually a listing array from the group id numbers for current user, as recorded in
Home directory from the user, usually
command assigns the device host name at bootup within an init script. However, the
identifies the computer hardware.
or word boundaries, if it interprets character strings.
space, tab, and newline, but might be changed, one example is, to parse a comma-separated data file. Note that